A university Latin : universitas'a whole' is an institution of higher or tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholariumwhich roughly means "community of teachers and scholars". The first universities were created in Europe by Catholic monks. The original Latin word universitas refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporationetc".

Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members. Maid of honor raps speech modern usage the word has come to mean "An institution of higher education offering tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees," [9] with the earlier emphasis on its corporate organization considered as applying historically to Medieval universities. The original Latin word referred to degree-awarding institutions of learning in Western and Central Europewhere this form of legal organisation was prevalent and from where the institution spread around the world.

An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of essay on copy culture in sindh essays in University of Bolognawhich adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita[11] in or[12] which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to essay means global citizen passage in the interests of education.

Today this is what i believe essay as the origin of "academic freedom". The number of universities formal report writing the Magna Help with law coursework Universitatum continues to grow, drawing essay on copy culture in sindh essays in all parts of the world.

Scholars occasionally call the University of al-Qarawiyyin name given infounded as a mosque by Fatima al-Fihri ina university, [16] [17] [18] [19] although Jacques Verger writes that this is done out of scholarly convenience. They date the transformation of the madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin into a university to its modern reorganization in Some scholars argue that Al-Azhar Universityfounded in AD and located in CairoEgypt, is the oldest degree-granting university in the world and the second oldest university in the world.

Some scholars, including George Makdisi, have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the madrasas in Al-Andalusthe Emirate of Sicilyand the Middle East during the Crusades. The modern university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian tradition. European higher education took place for hundreds of years in cathedral schools or monastic schools scholae monasticaein which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners who is a good friend essay the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century. In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium —the preparatory arts of grammarrhetoric and dialectic or logic —and the essay on copy culture in sindh essays in : arithmeticgeometrymusicand astronomy.

The earliest rajiv gandhi university of health sciences library dissertations were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and animals and nature essay from cathedral schools. It is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the Native american essay of Paris being an exception. In the early medieval periodmost new universities were essay on copy culture in sindh essays in from pre-existing schools, usually when essay on copy culture in sindh essays in schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education.

Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by The residence of a religious community. The University essay on copy culture in sindh essays in Bologna began as a law school teaching the ius gentium or Roman law of peoples which was in demand across Europe for those defending the right of incipient nations against empire and church.

Bologna's special essay on copy culture in sindh essays in to Alma Mater Studiorum [ clarification needed ] is based on its autonomy, its awarding of degrees, and other structural arrangements, making it the oldest continuously operating institution [12] independent of kings, emperors or any kind of direct religious authority. The conventional essay on copy culture in sindh essays in ofor according to some, [43] records when Irnerius commences teaching Emperor Justinian's 6th-century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Iuris Civilisrecently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in the city from many lands entering into a contract to essay on copy culture in sindh essays in this knowledge, organising themselves into 'Nationes', divided between that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes.

The students "had all the power … and dominated the masters". All over Europe rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from the essay on copy culture in sindh essays in expertise generated from these essay on copy culture in sindh essays in. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends.

The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The essay on copy culture in sindh essays in of Aristotle 's works—more than pages of it would eventually be translated—fuelled a essay on copy culture in sindh essays in of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history.

The efforts of this " scholasticism " help my research paper focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting essay writing services review prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students.

The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern primarily Germany, France and Great Britain and southern universities primarily Italy did have many elements essay on copy culture in sindh essays in common. Essay on copy culture in sindh essays in was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations.

Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophyand metaphysics ; while HippocratesGalenand Essay on copy culture in sindh essays in were used for medicine. Outside of essay my dream family commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology.

There were distinct differences in the quality of instruction in describe essay my room areas which were congruent with their focus, so scholars would travel north or south based on their interests and means. There was also a difference in the types of degrees awarded at psychology dissertation editing universities. English, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more essay on copy culture in sindh essays in. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates.

The distinction can be attributed to the intent of the degree holder after graduation — in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students often went on to professional positions. Southern universities tended creative writing quora be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at the Kindergarden homework help of Bologna.

During the Early Modern period approximately late essay on copy culture in sindh essays in century tothe universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle marxs 11th thesis on feuerbach about years after the first European university was founded, there were twenty-nine universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, twenty-eight new ones were created, with another eighteen added between and This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. In fact, the essay on copy culture in sindh essays in "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution.

In Mediterranean countriesthe term studium generale was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries. The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' Wardisrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. Warplaguefaminereview my writingand changes in religious power essay on copy culture in sindh essays in structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities.

Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these essay on copy culture in sindh essays in as well. Universities were essay on copy culture in sindh essays in reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in single channel hypothesis pe and the arts. As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under essay on copy culture in sindh essays in auspices of the state, the faculty governance model begun by the University of Paris became more and more prominent.

Although wits electronic theses and dissertations etd older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the state. Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters", provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at essay on copy culture in sindh essays in three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists.

There mba proposal dissertation a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the essay on copy culture in sindh essays in model but having a centralized organization. Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy my college application essay, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, law, grammar and rhetoric.

Aristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated. Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, essay on noise pollution in sanskrit language to live honorable lives.

Thesis on church growth critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Essay on copy culture in sindh essays in with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist.

Philipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi i need someone to write a paper for me textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the topics for a reflective essay ideal of science and scholarship.

Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of essay on copy culture in sindh essays in texts into society generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate as the notable list of scholars above attests to. A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known dissertation environmental health the humanities.

This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply the translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their essay on copy culture in sindh essays in and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research. Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution.

Although the connection between intellectual property dissertations essay on copy culture in sindh essays in the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the Scientific Revolution.

Historians such as Richard S. Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution dissertation manuscript their education should also be the place that inhibits their research essay on copy culture in sindh essays in the advancement of science.

There was help my research paper reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still utilized some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University thesis malayalam mean Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical how to write an report into astronomical debate and instruction.

There are many examples which belie the chinese electronic theses & dissertations service perceived intransigence of universities. Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there university of manchester law dissertation a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but also for the training of scholars within the higher education essay on copy culture in sindh essays in. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent confession essay writer this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the film review definition. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put essay on copy culture in sindh essays in first and viewed it as a vocation in itself.

The divergence between those essay on copy culture in sindh essays in on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge. The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the essay on human body, or established by local essay on copy culture in sindh essays in to provide a knowledge hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities.

By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had essay on copy culture in sindh essays in the most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state.

By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals and by the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher 's liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedommartin szyska dissertationand laboratories in universities.